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By The Numbers |
India had an estimated 45.3 million ‘active’ Internet users as on 30 September 2008. An overwhelming majority of 42 million users were from urban areas & rural areas had only about 3.3 million active internet users.
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Exams alert |
The eighth All India Engineering Entrance Examination – 2009 (AIEEE-2009) for admission to Engineering and Architecture will be conducted by CBSE on 26th April 2009 |
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Thus Spake |
No one ever attains success by simply doing what is required of him. |
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Interesting Facts |
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Barista: A barista is an expert in the preparation of espresso-based coffee drinks. The small cup in which an espresso (sometimes referred to as expresso) is served is called a Demitasse.
Tap dancing originates from Irish clog dancing and what is called the Irish reel and jig. |
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Did you know |
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Internet Bus from Google : Google India has launched an Internet Bus project in order to spread awareness about Internet. The project has been launched in Tamil Nadu state and will cover 15 towns over a period of 1.5 months.
The Internet Bus Project is an attempt educate people about what the Internet is, and how it may be beneficial to their lives, by taking the Internet experience to them through a customized Internet-enabled bus, which will travel to several towns and cities across India.
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Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol |
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Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network application protocol used by devices (DHCP clients) to obtain configuration information for operation in an Internet Protocol network. This protocol reduces system administration workload, allowing devices to be added to the network with little or no manual intervention. |
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Smile Please..! |
Tourists missed by a half hour |
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A bus load of tourists arrives at Runnymede. They gather around the guide who says, "This is the spot where the barons forced King John to sign the Magna Carta".
A fellow at the front of the crowd asks, "When did that happen"?
"1215," answers the guide.
The man looks at his watch and says, "Damn! Just missed it by a half hour!"
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Now there are two....
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There was a farmer who raised watermelons. He was regularly disturbed by some local kids who would sneak into his watermelon patch at night and eat watermelons. After some careful thought he came up with a clever idea that he thought would scare the kids away for sure. So he made up the sign and posted it in the field. The next day the kids show up and they see this sign, it says "Warning!! One of the watermelons in this field has been injected with cyanide".
So the kids run off, make up their own sign and post it next to the sign that the farmer made. The farmer shows up the next week and when he looks over the field he notices that no watermelons are missing but he notices a new sign next to his. He drives up to the sign which read: "Now there are two".
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Carburetor!
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WIFE: "There's trouble with the car. It has water in the carburetor".
HUSBAND: "Water in the carburetor? That's ridiculous".
WIFE: "I tell you the car has water in the carburetor".
HUSBAND: "You don't even know what a carburetor is. I'll check it out. Where's the car?"
WIFE: "In the pool".
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From The Editors Desk |
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Heartiest Greetings!
In this issue of Youniverse, we have presented an article on "Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol(DHCP)". The article provides IP address allocation, DHCP requests, DHCP acknowledgement and basic DHCP protocol.
Our regular section on Exam Alerts informs you of the important dates of the upcoming entrance examinations. The section on “Complex simplicities” provides you an introducion to the concepts of IP PBX, JXTA and A2DP.
More >>
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Complex Simplicities |
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An IP (Internet Protocol) PBX (Private branch exchange) is a business telephone system designed to deliver voice over a data network and interoperate with the normal Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).
VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) gateways can be combined with traditional PBX functionality enabling businesses to use their managed intranet to help reduce long distance expenses,
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JXTA |
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JXTA (Juxtapose) is an open source peer-to-peer protocol specification begun by Sun Microsystems in 2001. Sun remains actively involved in the development and promotion of JXTA. The JXTA protocols are defined as a set of XML messages which allow any device connected to a network to exchange messages and collaborate independently of the underlying network topology. |
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Advanced Audio Distribution Profile (A2DP) |
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This profile defines how high quality audio (stereo or mono) can be streamed from one device to another over a Bluetooth connection. For example, music streamed from a mobile phone to a wireless headset.
A2DP was initially used in conjunction with an intermediate Bluetooth transceiver that connects to a standard audio output jack, encodes the incoming audio to a Bluetooth-friendly format, and sends the signal wirelessly to Bluetooth headphones that decode and play the audio. |
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Interesting Facts |
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Barista: A barista is an expert in the preparation of espresso-based coffee drinks. The small cup in which an espresso (sometimes referred to as expresso) is served is called a Demitasse. |
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Tap dancing originates from Irish clog dancing and what is called the Irish reel and jig. |
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It was at a concert in Minneapolis in 1954 that Al Dvorin first closed Elvis's concerts with: "Ladies and Gentlemen, Elvis has left the building. Thank you and good night." |
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The world's largest disco was held at the Buffalo Convention Centre, New York, 1979. 13,000 danced the place into the Guinness Book of World Records. |
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Farfetched it may seem but when Benoit Lecomte swam across the Atlantic in 1998, he introduced a new global sports challenge: the first to swim around the world. |
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TIP: The word "tip" is also related to coffee. It comes from old London coffeehouses where the waiters' brass boxes were etched with the inscription, "To Insure Promptness." In fact, it was in one such coffeehouses which belonged to a Mr. Lloyd that a few cargo insurers got together to start the Lloyd's insurance company. |
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Fish talk to each other: Some of them communicate by making noises in their throats by rasping their teeth, others use their swim bladders to make sounds. |
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Pearls are found in oysters: When a grain of sand enters the oyster it coats it with a special chemical that turns the grain into a pearl. The largest pearl ever found was 620 carats. |
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In the very first OLYMPICS there was only one event, which was a foot race. It was won by a cook whose name was Corubus. The youngest ever Olympian is Greek gymnast Dimitrios Loundras, who competed in the 1896 Athens Olympics. He was 10 years old when his team won an Olympic bronze medal. |
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Did you know |
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Internet Bus from Google:Google India has launched an Internet Bus project in order to spread awareness about Internet. The project has been launched in Tamil Nadu state and will cover 15 towns over a period of 1.5 months. |
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The Internet Bus Project is an attempt educate people about what the Internet is, and how it may be beneficial to their lives, by taking the Internet experience to them through a customized Internet-enabled bus, which will travel to several towns and cities across India. |
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Oldest living thing: The oldest living thing on earth is a flowering shrub called the creosote bush, found in the Mojave Desert. It is 15 metres (50 ft) in diameter. It is estimated that it started from a seed nearly 12,000 years ago. During its lifetime, the last major period of glaciations in North America came to an end, the wheel and writing were invented, and the great Egyptian and Mayan pyramids were built. The shrub is still living. |
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Coffee business: Coffee is the world's most popular stimulant: 4 out of 5 Americans drink it, consuming more than 400 million cups a day. Consumption in Scandinavian countries is more than 12kg (26lb) per capita. With more than 25 million people employed in the industry, coffee is one of the largest trade industries in the world. |
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Although coffee is believed to have been grown near the Red Sea since the 7th century, an Arabian author of the 15th century, Shehabeddin Ben, wrote that Ethiopians enjoyed coffee ever since anyone could remember. By the 16th centuries, coffee plants were found throughout the Yemen region of Arabia. After a Turkish ambassador introduced it to the court of Louis XIV in 1669, Europeans quickly acquired a taste for it. A few years later, the Dutch introduced coffee into Java. In 1714, the Frenchman Desclieux planted a single cutting of a coffee tree on the island of Martinique. Plantations soon grew from French Guiana to Brazil and Central America. Today, coffee is planted in moist regions around the world. |
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Instant coffee was invented in 1906 by Mr. G. Washington, an Englishman living in Guatemala. |
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Umbrellas: The first umbrellas were used to keep the sun off people's heads. Some were made from wood and some were made out of whale bone. The Chinese made umbrellas waterproof by coating them with a wax mixture. This kept people from getting wet. |
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Books: In the olden days when books were made by hand, a scribe would have to copy out the writings onto parchment. He was not allowed to make any mistakes! All day long he would just sit and copy down words using pen and ink. |
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Long ago, the Chinese used silk to make their paper. They were the first people to start printing books instead of just writing books. But then they stopped and many years later a German, Johannes Gutenberg, started printing books again. The first book he printed was the Bible. |
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The smallest book in the world is called Chemin de la Cruix. It has 119 pages. It is 5 cm (2 inches) high and 3.3 cm (1 1/3 inches) wide. |
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The largest book in the world is an atlas which is in the British Museum. It is 1,8 metres (5 feet 10 inches) high and 1,2 metres (3 feet by 6 inches) wide. |
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DVD cloning: Optical disc authoring, including CD authoring and DVD authoring, is known as cloning, burning or ripping, the process of recording source material onto an optical disc (CD or DVD). Cloning software is required. |
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A DVD has a recording layer coated in an organic dye. A DVD burning laser, of higher intensity than a typical DVD reading laser, etches patterns into the dye, allowing the data to be read at a later date. A rewritable DVD uses a special metal alloy instead of a dye. The alloy can be switched back and forth between an amorphous and crystalline phase through the application of a laser, allowing the DVD to be rewritten a substantial number of times. Data quality degrades if the DVD is rewritten excessively, however. |
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Creating an optical disc usually involves first creating a disk image with a full file system designed for the optical disc, and then actually burning the image to the disc. Many programs create the disk image and burn in one bundled application, such that end-users do not even know the distinction. |
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The speed at which a DVD can be ripped is expressed as a multiplier: 16X means 16 times faster than just playing it. |
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The most popular clone software are DVDClone, Nero, Alcohol120%, and Easy Media Creator. |
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Traffic lights in use before there were motorcars: Traffic lights were used before the advent of the motorcar. In 1868, British railroad signal engineer J P Knight invented the first traffic light, a lantern with red and green signals. It was installed at the intersection of George and Bridge Streets in front of the British House of Commons to control the flow of horse buggies and pedestrians. |
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Motorcars were introduced to the US in the late 1890s and the need for traffic control soon became obvious. A number of people came up with ideas for traffic control. In 1910, Earnest Sirrine of Chicago, Illinois filed for a patent (no 976,939) for what is considered the first automatic street traffic system, using non illuminated words STOP and PROCEED. |
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In 1912, Lester Wire of Salt Lake City, Utah invented an electric traffic light that used red and green lights. However, he did not apply for a patent. The next year, James Hoge received patent no 1,251,666 for a manually controlled traffic light system using electric lights. It was installed in Cleveland, Ohio in 1914, displaying the words STOP and MOVE. |
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The first traffic light system to use red and green lights was patented by William Ghiglieri of San Francisco, California in 1917 (patented no 1,224,632). His design could be operated manually or in automatic. |
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The amber light was added in 1920 by William Potts, a Detroit policeman. He actually invented several traffic light systems, including the overhang four-way system, but did not apply for patents. The first person to apply for a patent to produce inexpensive traffic lights was Garrett Morgan, who received his patent in 1923. |
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Rail travel at 500 km/h (311 mph): When English inventor Richard Trevithick introduced the steam locomotive on 21 February 1804 in Wales, it achieved a speed of 8 km/h (5 mph). In 1815, Englishman George Stephenson built the world's first workable steam locomotive, commissioned by the Killingworth colliery. In 1825, he introduced the first passenger train, which steamed along at 25 km/h (16 mph). Today, trains can fly down the tracks at 500 km/h (311 mph). And fly they do, not touching the tracks. |
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Parking Meter: The credit for taking all your parking credits goes to Carlton Cole Magee who invented the first parking meter in 1932, receiving a patent (no 2,118,318) for it in 1935. His Magee-Hale Park-O-Meter Company installed the first meter in Oklahoma City in 1935 and still produces most of the parking meters in the United States. |
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| Don't Walk: The first "Don't Walk"' signs were installed in New York City on 5 February 1952. |
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Red remained the preferred color for warning signs because red elevates the blood pressure, heightening nervous tension, therefore the most likely color to attract attention. Yellow is used in signs aimed at vehicle traffic because it is the most visible color in the spectrum and can be seen from the farthest distance. |
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Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol |
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Introduction |
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Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network application protocol used by devices (DHCP clients) to obtain configuration information for operation in an Internet Protocol network. This protocol reduces system administration workload, allowing devices to be added to the network with little or no manual intervention.
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| IP address allocation |
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Depending on implementation, the DHCP server may have three methods of allocating IP-addresses, plus a fourth mode of operation ("manual") in which the client (rather than the DHCP server) assigns an IP address.
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Dynamic allocation: A network administrator assigns a range of IP addresses to DHCP, and each client computer on the LAN has its IP software configured to request an IP address from the DHCP server during network initialization. The request-and-grant process uses a lease concept with a controllable time periods, allowing the DHCP server to reclaim (and then reallocate) IP addresses that are not renewed (dynamic re-use of IP addresses). |
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Automatic allocation: The DHCP server permanently assigns a free IP address to a requesting client from the range defined by the administrator. This is like dynamic allocation, but the DHCP server keeps a table of past IP address assignments, so that it can preferentially assign to a client the same IP address that the client previously had. |
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Static allocation: The DHCP server allocates an IP address based on a table with MAC address / IP address pairs, which are manually filled in. Only requesting clients with a MAC address listed in this table will be allocated an IP address. This is variously called "Static DHCP Assignment", "fixed-address", "DHCP reservation" or "Static DHCP", and "IP reservation" or "MAC/IP binding" (by various other router manufacturers). |
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Manual allocation: The DHCP server does not assign the IP address; instead, the client is configured with a user-specified static IP address. |
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Many DHCP servers can manage hosts by more than one of the above methods. For example, these known hosts on the network can be assigned an IP address based on their MAC address (static allocation) whereas "guest" computers (such as laptops via WiFi) are allocated a temporary IP address out of a pool compatible with the network to which they're attached (dynamic allocation). |
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DHCP requests |
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A client can receive DHCP offers from multiple servers, but it will accept only one DHCP offer and broadcast a DHCP request message. Based on Transaction ID field in the request, servers are informed whose offer the client has accepted. When other DHCP servers receive this message, they withdraw any offers that they might have made to the client and return the offered address to the pool of available addresses. |
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| DHCP acknowledgement |
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When the DHCP server receives the DHCPREQUEST message from the client, the configuration processes enters its final phase. The acknowledgement phase involves sending a DHCPACK packet to the client. This packet includes the lease duration and any other configuration information that the client might have requested. At this point, the IP configuration process is complete. |
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The client is expected to configure its network interface with the negotiated parameters. |
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DHCP information |
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The client to the DHCP server: either to request more information than the server sent with the original DHCPOFFER; or to repeat data for a particular application - for example, browsers use DHCP Inform to obtain web proxy settings via WPAD. Such queries do not cause DHCP server to refresh the IP expiry time in its database. |
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DHCP releasing |
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The client sends a request to the DHCP server to release the DHCP information and the client deactivates its IP address. As clients usually do not know when users may unplug them from the network, the protocol does not mandate the sending of DHCP Release. |
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| Client configuration parameters |
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A DHCP server can provide optional configuration parameters to the client. RFC 2132 describes the available DHCP options defined by Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) - DHCP and BOOTP PARAMETERS. |
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Security |
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Unauthorized DHCP Servers: as you cannot specify the server you want, an unauthorized server can respond to client requests, sending client network configuration values that are beneficial to the attacker. As an example, a hacker can hijack the DHCP process to configure clients to use a malicious DNS server or router. |
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Unauthorized DHCP Clients: By masquerading as a legitimate client, an unauthorized client can gain access to network configuration and an IP address on a network it should otherwise not be allowed to use. Also, by flooding the DHCP server with requests for IP addresses, it is possible for an attacker to exhaust the pool of available IP addresses, disrupting normal network activity (a denial of service attack). |
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To combat these threats RFC 3118 ("Authentication for DHCP Messages") introduced authentication information into DHCP messages allowing clients and servers to reject information from invalid sources. Although support for this protocol is widespread, a large number of clients and servers still do not fully support authentication, thus forcing servers to support clients that do not support this feature. As a result, other security measures are usually implemented around the DHCP server (such as IPsec) to ensure that only authenticated clients and servers are granted access to the network. |
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Addresses should be dynamically linked to a secure DNS server, to allow troubleshooting by name rather than by a potentially unknown address. Effective DHCP-DNS linkage requires having a file of either MAC addresses or local names that will be sent to DNS that uniquely identifies physical hosts, IP addresses, and other parameters such as the default gateway, subnet mask, and IP addresses of DNS servers from a DHCP server. The DHCP server ensures that all IP addresses are unique, i.e., no IP address is assigned to a second client while the first client's assignment is valid (its lease has not expired). Thus IP address pool management is done by the server and not by a network administrator. |
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Applicability |
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Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol automates network parameter assignment to network devices from one or multiple, fault-tolerant DHCP servers. Even in small networks, DHCP is useful because it can make it easy to add new machines to the network. |
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DHCP is also recommended for servers whose addresses rarely change, so that if a server needs to be readdressed (RFC 2071), changes need be made in as few places as possible. For devices such as routers and firewalls that should not use DHCP, it can be useful to put Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) or SSH servers on the same host that runs DHCP, which serves to centralize administration. |
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DHCP can be used to assign addresses directly to servers and desktop machines on a local link, to dialup and broadband on-demand hosts through a Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) proxy, as well as for residential Network address translation (NAT) gateways. |
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IP PBX |
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An IP (Internet Protocol) PBX (Private branch exchange) is a business telephone system designed to deliver voice over a data network and interoperate with the normal Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).
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VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) gateways can be combined with traditional PBX functionality enabling businesses to use their managed intranet to help reduce long distance expenses, enjoy the benefits of a single network for voice and data and advanced CTI features or be used on a pure IP system which in most cases give greater cost savings, greater mobility, and increased redundancy.
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An IP-PBX can exist as a hardware object, or virtually, as a software system |
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Function |
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Because a major part of IPPBX functionality is provided in software, it is relatively inexpensive and easy to add additional functionality, such as conferencing, XML-RPC control of live calls, Interactive voice response (IVR), TTS/ASR (text to speech / automatic speech recognition), Public switched telephone network (PSTN) interconnection ability supporting both analogue and digital circuits, Voice over IP protocols including SIP, Inter-Asterisk eXchange, H.323, Jabber, GoogleTalk and others. |
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Unlimited Extensions, Unlimited Auto Attendants & Unlimited Voicemail Boxes |
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Cell Phone Integration & Integrated Paging
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Remote Phones |
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Advanced User Interface (including Fine me/Follow Me, Unified Messaging, Call recordings, Voicemail .wav) |
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Extension Groups |
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Auto Provisioning |
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Extension Range Flexibility |
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Caller ID Customization |
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DID Direct Inward Dialing |
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JXTA |
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JXTA (Juxtapose) is an open source peer-to-peer protocol specification begun by Sun Microsystems in 2001. Sun remains actively involved in the development and promotion of JXTA. The JXTA protocols are defined as a set of XML messages which allow any device connected to a network to exchange messages and collaborate independently of the underlying network topology. JXTA is the most mature general purpose P2P framework currently available and was designed to allow a wide range of devices - PCs, mainframes, cell phones, PDAs - to communicate in a decentralized manner. |
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As JXTA is based upon a set of open XML protocols, it can be implemented in any modern computer language. Implementations are currently available for Java Platform, Standard Edition, C/C++/C# and J2ME. The C# Version uses the C++/C native bindings and is not a complete re-implementation in its own right. |
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JXTA peers create a virtual overlay network which allows a peer to interact with other peers even when some of the peers and resources are behind firewalls and NATs or use different network transports. In addition, each resource is identified by a unique ID, a 160 bit SHA-1 URN in the Java binding, so that a peer can change its localization address while keeping a constant identification number. |
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Protocols in JXTA |
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Peer Resolver Protocol |
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Peer Information Protocol |
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Rendezvous Protocol |
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Peer Membership Protocol |
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Pipe Binding Protocol |
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Endpoint Routing Protocol |
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| Categories of peers |
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JXTA defines two main categories of peers: edge peers and super-peers. The super-peers can be further divided into rendezvous and relay peers. Each peer has a well defined role in the JXTA peer-to-peer model. |
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The edge peers are usually defined as peers which have transient, low bandwidth network connectivity. They usually reside on the border of the Internet, hidden behind corporate firewalls or accessing the network through non-dedicated connections. |
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A Rendezvous peer is a special purpose peer which is in charge of coordinating the peers in the JXTA network and provides the necessary scope to message propagation. If the peers are located in different subnets then the network should have at least one Rendezvous peer. |
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A Relay peer allows the peers who are behind firewalls or NAT systems to take part in the JXTA network. This is performed by using a protocol which can traverse the firewall, like HTTP, for example. |
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Any peer in a JXTA network can be a rendezvous or relay as soon as they have the necessary credentials or network / storage / memory / CPU requirements. |
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| Advertisements |
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An Advertisement is an XML document which describes any resource in a P2P network (peers, groups, pipes, services, etc). The communication in JXTA can be thought as the exchange of one or more advertisements through the network. |
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Pipes are a virtual communication channel used by JXTA to exchange messages and data. Pipes are asynchronous, unreliable, and unidirectional. There are basically three types of pipes: |
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Unicast |
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Unicast Secure |
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Propagate |
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| Peer groups |
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A peer group provides a scope for message propagation and a logical clustering of peers. In JXTA, every peer is a member of a default group, NetPeerGroup, but a given peer can be member of many sub-groups at the same time. A peer may play different roles in different groups; it may act as an edge peer in one group, but a rendezvous in another. |
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| Each group should have at least one rendezvous peer and it is not possible to send messages between two groups. |
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Applications |
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WiredReach - a proprietary peer-to-peer Universal Content Sharing System |
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Collanos Workplace - a proprietary peer-to-peer team collaboration based on JXTA |
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Sixearch - a collaborative peer network application based on JXTA |
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Advanced Audio Distribution Profile (A2DP) |
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This profile defines how high quality audio (stereo or mono) can be streamed from one device to another over a Bluetooth connection. For example, music streamed from a mobile phone to a wireless headset. |
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A2DP was initially used in conjunction with an intermediate Bluetooth transceiver that connects to a standard audio output jack, encodes the incoming audio to a Bluetooth-friendly format, and sends the signal wirelessly to Bluetooth headphones that decode and play the audio. Many Bluetooth 1.1 and 1.2 mobile phones and portable media players do not natively support A2DP, while some newer Bluetooth 2.0 headphones do support it. |
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Bluetooth headphones, especially the more advanced models, often come with a microphone and support for the Headset (HSP), Hands-Free (HFP) and Audio/Video Remote Control (AVRCP) profiles. |
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A2DP is designed to transfer a uni-directional 2-channel stereo audio stream, like music from an MP3 player, to a headset or car radio. This profile relies on AVDTP and GAVDP. It includes mandatory support for the low complexity SBC codec (not to be confused with Bluetooth’s voice-signal codecs such as CVSDM), and supports optionally: MPEG-1 (usually includes MP3), MPEG-2, MPEG-4, AAC, and ATRAC, and is extensible to support manufacturer-defined codecs. Most Bluetooth stacks implement the SCMS-T digital rights management (DRM) scheme. In these cases it is possible to connect the A2DP headphones for high quality audio. |
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From The Editors Desk |
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| Kayalvizhi |
| Email - kayal@mindlogicx.com |
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| Heartiest Greetings! |
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In this issue of Youniverse, we have presented an article on "Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol(DHCP)". The article provides IP address allocation, DHCP requests, DHCP acknowledgement and basic DHCP protocol.
Our regular section on Exam Alerts informs you of the important dates of the upcoming entrance examinations. The section on “Complex simplicities” provides you an introducion to the concepts of IP PBX, JXTA and A2DP.
We hope that you find the information presented in this issue of Youniverse interesting and useful. |
We welcome your thoughts, views, comments and any suggestions/knowledge or information that you may like to share with us. |
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| Editor |
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Feedback |
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Please provide us with your feedback on how you feel about the Youniverse newsletter.You can also send us your queries on the VEDAS services. |
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